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Network Biology, 2026, 16(4): 515-524
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Article

Astaxanthin: Sources, biosynthesis, bioactivities, clinical applications, and future perspectives

WenJun Zhang
School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

Received 23 February 2026;Accepted 9 March 2026;Published online 28 March 2026;Published 1 December 2026
IAEES

Abstract
Astaxanthin, a red-orange keto-carotenoid, has garnered significant scientific and commercial interest due to its potent antioxidant properties and diverse biological activities. Unlike many other antioxidants, astaxanthin's unique molecular structure allows it to span biological membranes, providing comprehensive protection against oxidative stress. This review provides a comprehensive overview of astaxanthin, covering its natural sources, biosynthesis pathways, and chemical characteristics. It details the extensive research on its multifaceted bioactivities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and skin-protective effects, supported by in vitro and in vivo studies. The review critically examines human clinical trials investigating its efficacy in areas such as eye health, skin aging, exercise performance, metabolic syndrome, and male fertility. Furthermore, the current state of astaxanthin production (microbial fermentation vs. algal cultivation), its applications in aquaculture, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food industries, and the global market trends are discussed. Finally, challenges in bioavailability, the need for more robust clinical evidence, and future research directions emphasizing novel delivery systems and exploration of new therapeutic applications are outlined.

Keywords astaxanthin;haematococcus pluvialis;carotenoid;antioxidant;anti-inflammatory;clinical trials;nutraceutical.


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